1910:
Tsar Nicholas II heads an absolute monarchy that continues to resist the
dilution of its power, despite recent constitutional reform, which for
the first time legalize political parties and establish an elected
parliament. His promise of civil rights goes unfulfilled, and growing
public discontent is channeled into left-wing revolutionary associations
which seek to overthrow the system.
1911-1916:
A wave of workers' strikes gains momentum after the 1912 massacre of
strikers at the Lena gold fields in Siberia. The Bolsheviks, a faction
of the Russian Social Democratic Workers' Party, capitalize on the
growing spirit of unrest and gain popular influence. Russia's entry into
World War I leads to a surge in patriotism, which temporarily suspends
public anger and disillusionment.
1917:
A general strike, the "February revolution," forces Nicholas II's
abdication and the monarchy's end. Power falls into two camps: a largely
socialist provisional government and the Petrograd Soviet, a popularly
elected assembly representing workers and soldiers in the capital. In
October Vladimir Lenin and the Bolsheviks seize power, calling for the
war's end and for a transfer of power to soviets.
1918-1920:
The Bolsheviks allow countrywide elections for the Constituent Assembly,
but close it down after winning only 20 percent of the vote. Based on
the Central Committee and Politburo, the Communist Party becomes the
Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic's political core. Promises
of a new constitution are constantly delayed, but the imperial family's
murder makes a return to monarchy impossible.
1921-1923:
The USSR initially comprises the Soviets Russia, Byelorussia, Ukraine,
and Caucasus, each with its own political organization but without real
independence from the center. The civil war has heightened the absolute
centralization of power. After less than a decade of independence, the
Communist Party has suppressed and subsumed Russia's trade unions.
Joseph Stalin becomes secretary general in 1922.
1924-1940:
Following Lenin's death, Stalin argues against the need for
international revolution for the USSR's survival; instead he aims for
"socialism in one country." He moves against rivals in the Party, and by
his 50th birthday in 1929, his dictatorship and cult of personality is
fully established. Central planning is instituted, and the party
reorganized to secure its total domination of the state.
1941-1945:
During the second world war, the Communist Party and its centralized
political structures prove highly effective in running the country. To
raise morale and rally the people to Russia's defense for the "Great
Patriotic War," Stalin moderates Soviet policy. Class warfare is
temporarily forgotten, and the terror of mass purges brought to an end.
1946-1952:
With the USSR's annexation of the countries of Eastern Europe comes the
introduction of single-party regimes and Soviet-style socioeconomic
reforms there. The prewar hostility of communist and capitalist worlds
resumes. At home, victory establishes the legitimacy of the Soviet state
in the eyes of many Russians. But having loosened the reins of power
during the war, Stalin resumes total control.
1953-1963:
By the time of Stalin's death, the political dictatorship has reached
maturity, backed by the world's largest secret police, the gulag,
aggressive censorship, and a vast military. Nikita Khrushchev denounces
Stalinism, but the dictatorial machine remains intact, and his own cult
of personality begins. His aggressive foreign policy results in the
Berlin Wall's erection and the Cuban missile crisis.
1964-1984:
On Khrushchev's death, the new regime revives the oligarchic principle
of collective rule, but Leonid Brezhnev soon emerges as the most
powerful leader. Brezhnev aims for stability on the international and
domestic scene, but the brutal military suppression enforced after
Czechoslovakia's uprising in 1968 offers stark proof of the limits of
political reform possible within the USSR.
1985-1987:
With perestroika, Gorbachev aims to restructure and improve the Soviet
system without building a new one. Article 6 of the constitution,
enshrining the Party's leading force in society, is removed. Gorbachev
seeks to identify and end corruption endemic in political ranks.
Internationally, he begins the retreat from the USSR's imperial
ambitions as well as a policy of warm relations with the West.
1988-1990:
Gorbachev's push to democratize the Soviet system leads to the creation
of a Congress of People's Deputies. For the first time, real elections
within the Party system take place with alternative candidates. The
dramatic change in Soviet politics is marked by the lack of military
response and the Party's impotence in the face of Poland's free
elections and the fall of the Berlin Wall.
1991:
Boris Yeltsin becomes president of the Russian Republic in the
first-ever election for a Russian leader. After a political struggle,
Gorbachev resigns as general secretary of the Communist Party of the
USSR (CPSU), and the CPSU is subsequently made illegal. A loose
Commonwealth of Independent States replaced the USSR, which is
fragmenting along nationalist and ethnic lines.
1992-1995:
Yeltsin's battle with a Communist-dominated Congress over a referendum
for a new constitution ends with his dissolution of parliament.
Communist hard-liners occupy the "White House" (parliament), but Yeltsin
reasserts his position in a military clash, and the new constitution
gives him sweeping powers. As Yeltsin's popularity wanes in the face of
economic problems, that of the Communist Party grows.
1996-1999:
Backed by Russia's increasingly powerful business tycoons, Yeltsin
defeats Communist Gennadii Zyuganov and is reelected president of Russia
in 1996. But Kremlin politics remain turbulent and unstable, especially
when Yeltsin becomes seriously ill. His regime struggles to build an
effective political administration and maintain control over local
government.
2000-2001:
Following Yeltsin's resignation, Vladimir Putin is elected president. He
vows to strengthen Russia's standing in the world and increase the
state's authority at home, while continuing to move toward a market
economy. His authoritarian and reformist intentions raise questions, and
his long-awaited government reform turns out to be little more than a
Cabinet shuffle. One of Putin's first acts is the restoration of Soviet
national anthem with different words.
2002-2003:
Vladimir Putin's consolidated power brings some political stability to
Russia, but new anti-terror laws and measures to control the media raise
fears of authoritarianism. Communists, splintered among several parties,
attempt to reorganize to provide stronger opposition. Putin cements his
alliance with the United States but stands firm with France and Germany
in opposing the U.S. invasion of Iraq.
2004: Putin re-elected by landslide in February; a year of Chechen
attacks on civilian targets culminates in Beslan 2005: Mikhail
Khodorkovsky, Russia's richest man, jailed for tax evasion
2006: Russia briefly cuts gas supplies to Ukraine in January; St
Petersburg hosts G8
2007: Putin likens US foreign policy to Nazi Germany's and
threatens to target missiles at EU states in response to US
anti-missile plans; Unity party wins 313 seats in December election
to Duma; Putin names Dmitri Medvedev his successor
back to top |