In the political vacuum left by the fall of the Manchu (Qing) dynasty,
warlords battle each other for control. Many are supported by foreign
powers that maintain "concessions" in China's main port cities.
Sun Yat-sen is one of the few political figures to address China's
problems. In 1912 he helps establish the Nationalist (Kuomintang) Party,
a coalition of small political groups. Educated in Hawaii, Sun looks to
the West for financial support. The Dalai Lama returns to Tibet in 1913
and declares Tibet's independence from China.
The Nationalists and the newly formed Chinese Communist Party (CCP) work
together at the Whampoa Military Academy on a plan to unify China.
Chiang Kai-shek is appointed commander, Zhou Enlai director of political
education. Sun Yat-sen holds this fragile alliance together. He dies of
cancer in March 1925.
The Shanghai Massacre is the first bloody split between Communists and
Nationalists. The Communists move underground while the Nationalists set
up headquarters in Nanjing and establish security organizations to stop
Communist growth in cities. Chiang Kai-shek adopts the title
"Generalissimo."
Mao Zedong creates a government in Jiangxi and builds a base of support.
He emerges the undisputed leader of the Chinese Communist Party during
the Long March. In Nanjing, the Nationalists launch an ideological
offensive called the New Life Movement, a mix of Confucianism and
fascism.
The Nationalists lose their entire Northeastern power base as city after
city falls to the Japanese at the start of the Sino-Japanese War.
Meanwhile, the Communists are building a strong rural base of support in
Northern China with a series of reforms, reducing land rent and taxes
and holding elections. The two sides are officially united against Japan
but clash frequently.
U.S. financial and military prop up the Nationalist government, and at
the end of World War II Chiang Kai-shek is hailed as a hero. But despite
U.S. mediation efforts, full-scale civil war soon erupts, and the
Nationalist government flees to Taiwan. American foreign service
officers who dealt directly with Communists are later blamed for the
"loss of China."
The Soviet Period.
The People's Republic of China is established October 1. Communists
forge new political structures, with a network of party branches in
every village. Its first major legislation makes women legally equal to
men. People are organized in work units that provide employment, health
care, housing, and education. Mao Zedong is first in authority, followed
by Liu Shaoqi, Zhou Enlai, and Deng Xiaoping.
China becomes increasingly isolated, but relies on the Soviet Union for
loans and industry advisors.
The Great Leap Forward. China attempts to industrialize using the
mass application of human willpower. The alliance with the Soviet
Union informally breaks in 1958 after Mao threatens to invade Taiwan, a move Premier
Nikita Khrushchev fears could provoke a superpower confrontation. Within
China, no one dares criticize Mao, even though his policies are clearly disastrous.
Socialist Re-Education.
Mao retreats from view after creating history's worst manmade famine.
Pragmatists Liu Shaoqi, Deng Xiaoping, and Zhou Enlai run the
government, determined to restore order and economic stability. "It
doesn't matter whether a cat is black or white," Deng says, "so long as
it catches mice." Mao believes they are betraying the revolution, and
relies almost exclusively on Defense Minister Lin Biao.
The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution. Mao returns to power
backed by student uprisings.
Deng Xiaoping is struggled against and exiled to a remote village. Liu Shaoqi is attacked, beaten, and kept under house arrest for two years,
after which he is finally flown to a remote prison, where he dies. Zhou
Enlai is seen as a moderating influence, though he never openly
challenges Mao. Factional warfare breaks out between Red Guard and the
PLA.
At the 9th Party Congress in 1969, Lin Biao denounces the U.S. and USSR
as imperialist enemies. Opposed to Mao's forging relations with America,
he plots a coup but is killed in a mysterious plane crash before he can
execute it. Zhou Enlai is a key advisor to Mao in talks with President
Nixon that result in the ambiguous Shanghai Communique, which contains
U.S. and Chinese positions on Taiwan.
The "Two Whatevers".
Even near death, Mao remains China's paramount leader. Zhou Enlai,
however, is more popular, and when he dies in 1976, thousands go to
Tiananmen Square to lay wreaths for him. Their pent-up frustration
erupts in anti-Gang of Four demonstrations. Mao dies quietly that same
year. With the support of the PLA and Deng Xiaoping, unknown Hua Guofeng becomes
Mao's successor in late 1976, and
soon afterward he arrests the Gang of Four.
Deng Xiaoping returns to power, decisively ousting the ineffective Hua
Guofeng. He brings millions of sent-down youths back to cities and from
that pool cultivates new economic advisors with valuable rural
experience. Deng maintains complete political control with his crackdown
on the Democracy Wall movement, even as he displays a willingness for
innovation in the economic realm.
The Four Modernizations.
Economic reformers Hu Yaobang and Zhao Ziyang work openly to reform
China's economy. In 1982 Deng hosts Margaret Thatcher and negotiates the
return of Hong Kong from Britain to Chinese rule. The Joint Declaration
is signed in 1984, signaling China's growing power on the world stage.
Reformers try to address problems of state-owned enterprises (SOEs), but
are resisted by conservatives like Chen Yun, who view SOEs as the
backbone of the socialist system. Deng unsuccessfully pushes to oust
older Central Committee members. Mao's legacy is debated. The Party
faces mounting social instability.
The government is split between hard-liners intent on restoring old
order and reformers seeking increased openness and economic reform. Deng
views student and worker demonstrations in Tiananmen Square as a
challenge to his authority and political stability and joins hard-liners
in calling for a brutal crackdown. Zhao Ziyang is dismissed from his
posts, and Jiang Zemin is named new Party chief.
Restructuring and Reallocation.
After a period of retrenchment following the Tiananmen massacre, Deng
begins to challenge conservative foes like Chen Yun, urging their
retirement. His bold trip through the Southern Special Economic Zones (SEZs)
confirms their importance to China's economic growth.
There are sharp disagreements within the Party about how to maintain
government control, increase prosperity, join world markets, and stop
the fiscal hemorrhaging of the state-owned enterprises.
Deng Xiaoping, the last veteran revolutionary, dies in 1997. Jiang Zemin
becomes the Party's new leader at the 15th Party Congress. The
government focus is on maintaining internal stability and economic
growth, projecting itself forward into global organizations, and
preventing Taiwan's permanent separation from China.
Jiang Zemin protégé Hu Jintao brings generational renewal as new Party
secretary. Jiang heads the military and retains strong influence on the
leadership. The Communist Party welcomes businesspeople in a further
broadening of "socialism with Chinese characteristics." In 2003, the
regime mishandles the SARS outbreak, then sacks the health minister and
Beijing's mayor to try to regain credibility.
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