the faces of fascism


AUTHORITARIAN CAPITALISM

Fascism was an authoritarian political movement that developed in Italy and other European countries after 1919 as a reaction against the political and social changes brought about by World War I and the spread of socialism and communism. Its name was derived from the fasces, an ancient Roman symbol of authority consisting of a bundle of rods and an ax.

The intellectual roots of fascism can be traced back to voluntaristic philosophers such as Arthur Schopenhauer, Friedrich Nietzsche, and Henri Bergson and to Social Darwinism with its emphasis on the survival of the fittest. Its immediate roots, however, were in certain irrational, socialist, and nationalist tendencies of the turn of the century that combined in a protest against the liberal bourgeois ideas then holding sway in Western Europe. Gabriele D'Annunzio, Georges Sorel, and Maurice Barres were particularly influential.

Fascist ideology, largely the work of the neoidealist philosopher Giovanni Gentile and Benito Mussolini, emphasizes the subordination of the individual to a "totalitarian" state that controls all aspects of national life. It is a philosophy of government that glorifies the nation-state at the expense of the individual. Major concepts of fascism include opposition to democratic and socialist movements; racist ideologies such as anti-semitism; aggressive and expansionist military policy; and belief in a supreme authoritarian leader who embodies the ideals of the nation. Violence as a creative force is also an important aspect of the Fascist philosophy. Fascism generally gains support by promising social justice to discontented elements of the working and middle classes, and social order to powerful financial interests. While retaining class divisions and usually protecting capitalist and landowning interests, the fascist state exercises control at all levels of individual and political activity, employing special police forces to instill fear in the general population. This is an attempt to eliminate the class struggle from history through nationalism and the corporate state. Authoritarian Capitalists organize the economy and all "producers"--from peasants and factory workers to intellectuals and industrialists--into corporations as a means of improving productivity and avoiding industrial disputes.

The first fascist movement was founded in Milan on Mar. 23, 1919, by Benito Mussolini, a former revolutionary socialist leader. His followers, mostly war veterans, were organized along paramilitary lines and wore black shirts as uniforms. The early Fascist program was a mixture of left-and right-wing ideas that emphasized intense nationalism, productivism, antisocialism, elitism, and the need for a strong leader. Mussolini's oratorical skills, the postwar economic crisis, a widespread lack of confidence in the traditional political system, and a growing fear of socialism, all helped the Fascist party grow. Mussolini became prime minister in October 1922 following the "march on Rome" and 3 years of bloody violence. In 1926 he seized total power as dictator and ruled Italy until July 1943, when he was deposed.

Closely related to Italian fascism was German National Socialism, or Nazism, under Adolf Hitler. It won wide support among the unemployed, the impoverished middle class, and industrialists who feared socialism and communism. In Spain the Falange Espanola (Spanish Phalanx), inspired by Mussolini's doctrines, was founded in 1933 by Jose Antonio Primo de Rivera (1903-36). During the Spanish Civil War, the Falange was reorganized as the Falange Espanola Tradicionalista by Gen. Francisco Franco, who made it the official party of his regime. Of less importance were the Fascist movements in France and the British Union of Fascists under Sir Oswald Mosley. Fascist movements sprang up in many other European countries during the 1930s, including the Iron Guard in Romania, and other organizations in Belgium, Austria, and the Netherlands. Fascist groups rose to power in many of the countries under German occupation during World War II. In France the Vichy Government of Marshal Philippe Petain was strongly influenced by the Action Francaise, a movement that shared many ideas with fascism. The collaborationist Quisling government in occupied Norway also espoused a fascist-like ideology. Although the defeat of Italy and Germany in the war appeared to spell the end of fascism as an effective, internationally appealing mass movement, there has been a resurgence in neo-nazi and neo-fascist movements around the world--such as the Italian Social Movement led by Mussolini's granddaughter, the Liberal Democratic party in Russia led by Vladimir Zhirinovsky, and Jean Marie LePen's National Front in France--since the fall of communism.

Bibliography: Arendt, Hannah, The Origins of Totalitarianism, rev. ed. (1966); Bessel, R., Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany (1996); Blinkhorn, Martin, ed., Fascists and Conservatives (1990); Cassels, Alan, Fascism (1975); De Felice, Renzo, Interpretations of Fascism, trans. by B. Everett (1977); Fond, G., Fascist Europe (1993); Gregor, James, Young Mussolini and the Intellectual Origins of Fascism (1979); Griffin, Roger, ed., The Nature of Fascism (1995); Hoyt, E. P., Mussolini's Empire: The Rise and Fall of the Fascist Vision (1994); Morgan, Philip, Italian Fascism, 1919-1945 (1995); Payne, Stanley G., Fascism: A Comparative Approach toward a Definition (1980) and Fascism, 1914-1945 (1996) ; Thurlow, Richard, C., Fascism in Britain (1987).

 

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General Characteristics of Authoritarian Capitalism:

I. reactionary

  • religious mysticism
    visceral, emotional, fanatic, dogmatic

  • violent struggle
    force as the only legitimate form of conflict resolution

  • mythic past
    insistence on return to a 'golden age'

II. elitist

  • natural hierarchy
    inevitable inequality and “strong ideal tension” based on the “will to power”

  • leadership principle
    pyramid of leadership with a“divine” leader

  • racism and eugenics
    scapegoats: necessity of both external and internal enemies

III. subjective

  • moral relativism
    justice: arbitrary rules and respect for the rights of the victor

  • duty of obedience
    expectation of conformity, discipline, and submission

  • rule by coercion
    enforcement of order through violence, terror, and lies

IV. totalitarian

  • acceptance of social contract in every aspect of personal life

  • fascism as a way of life, not merely a system of goverment

V. expansionist

  • imperialism: extreme nationalism and permanent mobilization for war

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photo circle: Mussolini in Rome, 1936.

photo top: (clockwise from left): Adolph Hitler, Yukio Mishima, Saddam Hussein, Kwame Nkrumah, Benito Mussolini, Eva Peron, Juan Peron, Francisco Franco, Jean Marie LePen, Vladimir Zhirinovsky.

Robert A. Crawford.
Copyright © 1998
All rights reserved.
Revised: August 30, 2007.